Freedom Religion Press

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8476 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The Impact of Freedom of Religion on Press Freedom Since 2000 Introduction The British Council (2004) describes the vital role played by the media in maintaining a democratic culture, as well as freedom of expression that is interwoven through not only the political system but also public consciousness. Ideally, the media facilitates constructive political debate, and is the vehicle through which individuals in a democracy communicate with one another. To serve its purpose, the media must record events objectively and comprehensively, regardless of external censorship pressures. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Freedom Religion Press | Religion Dissertations" essay for you Create order However, in recent years there have been a number of significant challenges to freedom of expression made by religious individuals and organisations, a situation which is exacerbated by the globalisation of society and the media. Increasing globalisation has created an unprecedented level of cross-cultural interaction, one of the side effects of which has been to propel the issue of free speech to the centre of public debate (Binderup 2007). One unfortunate consequence of this growing cultural diversity has been increased intimidation and harassment of those who exercise freedom of expression against religious groups. According to Lipman (2006): A conflict exists between free expression and cultural sensitivity, confounded in this case by the manipulations of various factions, political parties, and nations seeking personal advantageand stirred by the existence of ongoing armed conflicts in the Middle East and acts of terror elsewhere (p. 5). As such, freedom of expression is threatened by a complicated matrix of interwoven interests encompassing not only religion but various political power struggles, as well as socioeconomic factors. Binderup (2007) emphasises that this tendency has been amplified by media globalisation. To put the current phenomenon in context, this paper touches upon the history of media and religious conflict, as well as legislation that affects freedom of both expression and religion. This is followed by an analysis of the importance of the media in promoting and maintaining democracy, as well as recent instances of censorship in response to religious complaint. Next, two cases which illustrate the intensity of the debate over free speech are examined: the reaction to the Danish cartoons depicting the Muslim prophet Muhammad and the Church of Scientologys aggressive response to its critics. Additionally, a brief analysis of recent conflicts between freedom of expression and other religious interests is presented, after which conclusions are drawn as to whether the rise of religious fundamentalism has affected the way in which journalists have reported the news in recent years. Literary Review Binderup (2007) emphasises that clashes between freedom of expression and freedom of religion are not a new phenomenon. Before the uproar over the Danish cartoons, author Salman Rushdies life was threatened, his translators stabbed and his publisher in Norway shot over his novel The Satanic Verses, which includes a loose fictionalised account of the life of Muhammad. When the dust settled, 22 people had been killed and many more injured by rioters, and democratic relations between Iran and the West had been compromised (Levy 1993). Filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered by Muslim radicals for making a movie about womens oppression under Islam (Binderup 2007). Additionally, the suggestion by a Nigerian newspaper that Muhammad may have chosen Miss World contestants for his wives sparked riots that led to the deaths of 200 people (Muhammad cartoons: a timeline 2006). Binderup (2007) notes that Muslims arent the only religious group that has threatened freedom of expression. Christians have expressed their outrage over movies such as The Last Temptation of Christ and The Life of Brian, and Sikhs have aggressively opposed Bethzi, a play by Gurpreet Bhatti, which features rape and murder in a temple. Such conflicts have sparked a discourse regarding the value of free speechand whether or not freedom of expression should be subject to limitations. The History of Media and Religious Conflict Conflict between religion and the press is not new. Although the church was initially enthusiastic about the invention of the printing press as religious materials could be more easily and widely disseminated, with the schism between Protestants and Catholics came the use of the press to demonise one side or the other (Winston 2005). Levy (1993) details a long history of prosecutions under Englands blasphemy laws, noting that [t]he term blasphemy was commonly used to make odious the holders of opinions that a community rejected as offensive (p. 347). Specific blasphemy cases underscore the real reasons for the aggressive persecution of dissenters. The trial of William Hone in the early 1900s for parodying aspects of Christianity such as the Ten Commandments and the Lords Prayer was based on the fact that he had circulated materials that were calculated to weaken the awe and reverence felt for Christianity (p. 349). Officials were particularly upset that Hones inexpensive offering was accessible to the lower classes, fearing that [t]he ignorant and uninformed could not be expected to obey the law if they lost that awe and reverence (p. 349). On learning of the charges against him, Hone withdrew his parodies, claiming that they had been intended not to mock religion, but rather to insult his Majestys Ministers. Hone was acquitted, which illustrates the fact that political figures were considered worthy of mockery, while religion was untouchable. However, Hones case led to the adoption of resolutions that favoured not only press freedom but also jury trial and, significantly, the right to parody religion (p. 352). Thus, the Hone case marked a significant watershed in the movement toward democratic freedom of expression. However, during that era, people continued to be imprisoned for blasphemy, including those who sold Hones parodies (Levy 1993). According to Levy (1993), prosecutions for blasphemy continued throughout the 1800s and early 1900s. Ironically, as with more current cases, attempts by the state to suppress freedom of speech on behalf of religion only served to draw attention to the very works that had invoked religious ire, as well as generating public debate regarding freedom of speech. One of the more influential voices in this debate was James Mill, who advocated for the freedom to publish political opinions (p. 375). Mill repudiated distinctions as to what constituted decent and indecent (i.e., calculated to inflame) discussions regarding politics or religion, emphasising that unless all opinions were entitled to the same freedom, the only opinions that would enjoy freedom were those that were sanctioned, popular, or inoffensive (p. 375). His son John Stuart Mill took up the cause as well, suggesting that because proponents of Christianity attacked and reviled others religions, theirs should be open to the same sorts of attacks in the interests of fairness. Levy (1993) notes that Deist opinions also had a salutary effect of helping to keep the clergy intellectually honest (p. 377). While the churches of two different religions might work to censor one another, they are also inclined to engage in mutual indulgences that promote the interests of both (p. 377). Such tendencies can be seen in modern times when those of various religions work together to censor media stories or other forms of expression that are offensive to one group or the other. Blasphemy laws were carried over to the New World by English colonists. Such laws persisted because attacks on Christianity were thought to strike at the root of moral obligation and to weaken social ties (Levy 1993, p. 403). As a result, prosecutions under highly subjective blasphemy laws also occurred in the United States and Canada. The last North American blasphemy case was in 1968; however, due to expanded First Amendment freedoms, the state appellate court held that the blasphemy statue was unconstitutional. However, although blasphemy laws were officially discontinued, they slept undisturbed in old judicial opinions, which ensured the banning of various creative works that were offensive to Christians (Levy 1993, p. 536). When the mass media emerged, publishers realised that controversial religious stories drew a large readership. At the same time, as journalists became increasingly independent, religious institutions lost control of press coverage relating to their faith and felt that their authority was threatened (Hoover 1998). However, there is evidence that religious groups continued to protect their interests fiercely. In 1940, addressing journalism students, the Denver Posts Lawrence Martin said: In times past, newspapers got into so many scrapes over these religious squabbles that most editors drew in their horns and actually barred from their columns any but the most harmless and noncontroversial items about churches or religious topics. Even today you will find most editors refusing to print letters from readers on religion, for fear of inciting a riot (Hoover 1998, p. 21). As a result, [t]he approach to religion in the period before 1980 was . . . one that included a good bit of deference to religious leaders and institutions (Hoover 1998, p. 23). After 1980, the media became more willing to offend religious sensibilities in order to provide comprehensive coverage of events related to religion. However, the corresponding rise in fundamentalist religion has generated a backlash against the press as well as various creative works that has culminated in a number of serious incidents, most notably the recent rioting in response to Danish cartoons depicting the prophet Muhammad in a negative light. Freedom of the Press and Democratic Values Free expression is required if we are to have open discussion over such issues a birth control or abortion, and such open discussions are critical aspects of democracy. When blasphemy laws could no longer be enforced, debate arose as to whether Parliament should enact a new statute to punish public insult to feelings of all religious believers; at the time, concern for freedom of speech took precedence, given that [t]he range of topics capable of causing offense to the feelings of some religious group were so broad that almost anything could be censored (Levy 1993, p. 553). However, talk of enacting such a statute has been revived in response to the Danish cartoon crisis. Complicating matters is that supposedly democratic governments may grant special favour to religious organisations in exchange for their support. To explain the reason for the special status accorded to religion under the law, it was posited by John Search that: . . . state religion was adopted not because it was true but because it was politically useful. All government rested on popular consent . . . and nothing could be more helpful to the government than to have the cooperation of the clergy, who could sway the religious feelings of the people and thus dispose them to favor the government . . . It must therefore be protected, not just from invasion of its established rights, but from censure, because censure might make it disesteemed, and disesteem might impair its stability, and thereby that of the government with it (Levy 1993, p. 427). There is some support for this argument in the fact that in recent years, leaders such as Tony Blair and George W. Bush both claim to be very religious and have both spoken out against offending religious sensibilities. Also, it is well known that professing atheism or agnosticism is political suicide. The European Convention on Human Rights The European Convention on Human Rights was established by the European Council in 1950. Article 9 of the Convention covers the specifics of religious freedom: 1 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. 2 Freedom to manifest ones religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. Notably, the Article talks about freedom to worship and practice, but does not mention freedom from discourse that the religious individual may find offensive. This is an important distinction given that religious individuals often argue that their right to freedom of religion is violated by offensive artistic expressions or commentary. Article 10 deals with the specifics of freedom of expression, and this article specifies the right to impart ideas and information without censorship: 1 Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers . . . . 2 The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary. Article 10 does mention that freedom of speech could potentially be restricted for a number of reasons, including preventing disorder and defamation, and ensuring public safety. This leaves room for interpretation in that material considered offensive could be theoretically be censored if it is deemed likely to provoke violent protests. Additionally, what constitutes a threat to morals is open to subjective interpretation. Human Rights Act 1998 The Human Rights Act of 1998 has two sections which have direct bearing on the conflicts between freedom of expression and freedom of religion: Section 12 (Freedom of Expression) and 13 (Freedom of thought, conscience and religion). Whilst Section 13 does not provide much detail as to what constitutes freedom of religion, Section 12 contains subsections which reflect directly on the debate regarding freedom of expression. Subsection (3), which states that [n]o such relief is to be granted so as to restrain publication before trial unless the court is satisfied that the applicant is likely to establish that publication should not be allowed, indicates that material cannot be censored in advance of its publication, and that the burden of proving that the material should not be published is on the applicant rather than the publisher. Subsection (4) of the Act indicates that questions of freedom of expression should defer to the European Convention on Human Rights, and should also pay attention to (a) the extent to which(i) the material has, or is about to, become available to the public; or (ii) it is, or would be, in the public interest for the material to be published. This has particular relevance for a number of cases in which sharing knowledge of the criminal dealings of certain religious organisations or individuals is in the best interests of the public. Also, with rapid dissemination of even censored information via the Internet, there is little that is not likely to become available to the public in the Information Age. British Libel Laws British libel laws are relevant to any discussion of the clash between freedom of expression and religious freedom in that at times they have been used to persecute individuals who have published materials linking religious organisations to criminal activities such as terrorism. Sturcke (2006) notes that the goal of British libel laws is to balance the right of free speech against protection for the reputation of an individual from unjustified attack ( 1). However, given that religious groups generally take issue with any questioning of the tenets of their faith, any publication that disagrees with the fundamental aspects of a religion is open to attack (Edwards 2006), and whenever possible, religious organisations and individuals will make use of British libel laws to do so. According to Sturcke (2006) because those accused of libel must often spend hundreds of thousands of pounds to defend themselves, as well as damages and court costs if they lose the case, many newspapers will no t bother to fight them, even when their cases are strong. The Meaning of Freedom of Religion In Vocabularies of Public Life, Robert Wuthnow emphasises that [o]ur freedom depends on being able to contribute to the public debate over collective values (Hoover 1998, p. 45). Here Wuthnow refers to more than just freedom of expression, encompassing the entire spectrum of democratic freedoms, among which freedom of religion is included. The meaning of the term freedom of religion includes the freedom to believe in religion, and the freedom not to believe in religion (M.E. Sharpe Inc. 2006, p. 10). However, only the first aspect of this freedom tends to be invoked in an attempt to exercise censorship. A review of the literature turns up no lawsuits in which atheists have sued religious individuals for referring to them as sinners or blasphemers. Overall, when giving voice to concerns as to whether free speech should be limited in order to avoid offending religious sensibilities, there is no public discourse regarding whether religious people should be free to express opinions that offend atheists and agnostics. As such, arguments that posit the need to protect against offensiveness are without merit, given that to fairly enforce such laws would also require that religious individuals be restricted in their own public discourse so as not to offend the non-religious (Levy 1993). If proponents of a (minority or majority) religious culture are allowed to state publicly that atheist sinners will burn in Hell, then surely in respect for fairness and equality we mustother things being equalallow the atheist critic to make fun of the religious views (Binderup 2007, p. 414). Some would take this argument even further. According to Edwards (2006), by allowing any superstition to have a role in determining the theoretical legal limits of free speech we are inadvertently crafting a doctrine for unscientific, irrational bullies (34). Recent Challenges to Freedom of Expression Babbin (2008) describes other recent challenges to free speech, including the lawsuit against Dr. Rachel Ehrenfeld. Ehrenfelds book, Funding Evil: How Terrorism Is Financed, and How to Stop It, accuses Salim bin Mahfouz, who once headed the Saudi National Commercial Bank, and members of his family of funding terrorist activities. Although Ehrenfeld, an American, wrote and published her book in the United States, because a small number of copies were sold in Britain via the Internet, bin Mahfouz was able to use British courts to sue the author for libel. Given that British libel laws put the burden of proof on the author (the opposite of the situation in the U.S.), Ehrenfeld must prove that her allegations are true, rather than bin Mahfouz proving that they are false. Bin Mahfouz won a large judgment against the author, as well as a demand that she no longer publish anything against him in England or Wales. This case has ramifications for books and news reports on religious issues as well. According to Sturcke (2006), if material is published in the public interest, it is theoretically immune from libel charges ( 5). However, libel laws are phrased in such a way as to leave great scope for interpretation. This makes them similar to the old blasphemy laws, which were so vague that the very issue in any prosecution is whether the crime has been committed at all, and as such, the prejudices of judges and juries shape the verdict (Levy 1993, p. 574). Babbin (2008) notes that in a similar case, Robert O. Collins and J. Millard Burrs book Alms for Jihad, a well-researched expose which documents not only contributions made by Islamic charities to terrorist activities but also bin Mahfouzs support of these activities, was ordered removed from libraries and bookstores by British courts, which further demanded that all unsold copies be destroyed. In North America, by contrast, the American Library Associations Office for Intellectual Freedom recommended that libraries not acquiesce to Cambridge publishers request to destroy or return the book. As a result, although most publishers have avoided the book, many North American libraries carry copies of it, and there are plans to republish it in the U.S. where bin Mahfouz will not be able to use libel laws to suppress it (Albanese Pinkowski 2007). Canadian laws also leave room for the abuse of the right to freedom of expression. Babbin (2008) details a third case, that of Mark Steyn, author of America Alone. This book asserts that Islam is not only a religion but also a political project, and prone to violence as well. Canadian magazine Macleans echoed this stance, and both Steyn and the magazine were subjected to a complaint made by three Muslim law students who used the Canadian Human Rights Commission to their advantage. As a result, the magazine will suffer fines and additional sanctions, and will likely be ordered not to publish anything else that might offend Muslims. A case will probably be brought against Steyn as well, and he may suffer fines and additional penalties under Canadian law for exercising his right to free speech. Cases such as this underscore the restrictions placed on freedom of the press by religious interests. Spencer (2008) details another case, that of Geert Wilders movie Fitna, which has drawn headlines recently. Fitna, which links passages from the Quran to acts of terrorism and oppression, was hosted by LiveLeak.com but pulled shortly thereafter in response to serious threats. Various Muslim leaders condemned the film as a racist incitement to intolerance and unrest, but LiveLeak eventually restored the link. The film is certainly one-sided, and portrays fundamentalist extremists rather than moderate Muslims, as well as positing a future dystopia in which extreme cruelty and oppression are the norm as a result of Islams proliferation. However, whether or not one views the creation of such a film as a bad idea, the Fitna saga illustrates the limits now placed on freedom of expression in that both individuals and publishers of material can be threatened to the point where they must engage in censorship. In short, we have apparently repealed centuries of intellectual progress in the hope less pursuit of social harmony (Edwards 2006, p. 34). Dangers of Restricting Freedom of Speech Whilst freedom of speech may be taken for granted in some countries, [t]he larger part of humanity faces sharp rebuke, incarceration, and even death for saying or printing that which offends some in their society and [w]ithout the right to be critical of religion we are in a hopeless situation where we must kowtow to the demands of any religious extremist and any perception of offense (Lipman 2006, p. 5). Of course, with freedom of speech, there are many things said that probably shouldnt be. However, according to Binderup (2007): It may be true that free speech generates a lot of noise and tends to give too much airtime to false views or irrelevant truths. However, the objection overlooks that free speech also allows for the occasional very important, but unpopular truth to reach the public ear and become the focus of an open public debate. In particular, the unpopular truths that those in power in various positions do not want disclosed. First and foremost these are truths about corruption or ineptitude in the government, but also truths about serious problems or injustices in society that various other powerful agents in society do not like to see revealedbe it the majority of the population as a whole or some powerful elite like the media establishment, those at the top of the economic hierarchy, or perhaps a powerful elite within a cultural minority (pp. 408-409). Dalier and Schneider (2007) further this argument, stating that any effort to suppress criticism amounts to a curtailment of freedom (p. 127). As such, by publishing criticism, the press acts as a key defender of freedom. Whilst supporting freedom of speech, Edwards (2006) stresses the need to maintain civility and respect in debate, and points to the insufficient maturity and sophistication evident in media coverage of certain religious issues. However, he also notes that while John Stuart Mill argued the need for unfettered contestability of ideas due to the fallability of human knowledge, people who believe in absolute truth, revealed by God are not inclined to accept that human knowledge may be fallible, and herein lies the source of the conflict between free public discourse and religious sensibilities (p. 32). Levy (1993) emphasises that Liberals too often behave like Chicken Little, giving the impression that one case of suppression means the sky is falling and Shakespeare will be next (p. 576). He suggests that there is some value in prosecuting based on works that constitute hate literature in their entirety, and those which are intended to outrage and injure if, taken as a whole, they are without redeeming social values (p. 476). But this begs the question of who has the power to decide which works have social value and which have no purpose other than to incite hostility. Case Studies: The Danish Cartoons and the Church of Scientology The members of two religions have been particularly ferocious in responding to what they perceive as attacks on their faith in recent years: Islam and the Church of Scientology. Muslims have engaged in everything from peaceful protest to threats and violence to suppress media stories and artistic expressions that offend their faith, and Scientologists have used the legal system to attack and censor their critics. Incidents involving these two groups have been selected for analysis in order to answer the question of whether conflict with religion has affected the way in which the media reports the news. The Danish Cartoons Islam, the faith to which more than one billion Muslims adhere, has a number of strict rules, one of which is that the prophet Muhammad must never be depicted. In 2006, Jyllands-Posten, a Danish newspaper, published 12 cartoons that depicted Mohammad, setting off a firestorm of protest and violence as Muslims responded ferociously to what they perceived as an insult to their religion, burning Danish flags, the Danish Embassy and various Western businesses such as Pizza Hut and McDonalds (Smalls 2006). Muslims believed that the cartoons, one of which depicts Muhammad wearing a turban shaped like a bomb, equate the Muslim faith with terrorism (Ghosh 2006).This sparked a debate as to the limits of free speech, which, ironically, had been the original intention of the cartoons publisher. To show solidarity with the Danish newspaper, a number of papers in Europe and North America also published the cartoons because their right to publish was being called into question (Cartoon wars 2006, 8). Muslims put forth the argument that the cartoons were disrespectful to their religion, perceiving them as an expression of intolerance and racism in Europe (Dalier Schneider 2007). Binderup (2007) asserts that the cartoons were explicitly intended as fair criticism, not as a gratuitous attack on a disadvantaged minority group (409), though this may be debatable, given that Jyllands-Posten previously refused to print a number of cartoons that ridiculed Jesus out of fear of offending Christians (Modood et al. 2006). Interestingly, the BBC took the opposite strategy, screening Jerry Springer The Opera, which was highly offensive to Christians, whilst refusing to show the Danish cartoons (BBCs dilemma over cartoons 2006). The cartoons originated as a protest designed to spark debate. Flemming Rose, Jyllands-Postens culture editor, noting an increasing tendency toward media self-censorship throughout Europe due to intimidation by Muslims, asked a number of illustrators to draw cartoons on the subject of Muhammad and Islam. Of the 12 who responded, several produced pictures that were offensive to Muslims (Ammitzbll Vidino 2007). In response, Muslim organizations launched a series of lawsuits against Jyllans-Posten, first seeking criminal charges based on blasphemy and racism and then filing a defamation lawsuit against the newspaper (Muhammad cartoons: a timeline 2006). According to Binderup (2007), the cartoons did cause upheaval and riots in some Asian and African countries resulting in 139 deaths, but this only happened after they had been deliberately taken out of the Danish context to a global Muslim audience by a group of radical Islamic imams from Denmark (p. 410), which is much the same as what happened with Salman Rushdies book, The Satanic Verses (Levy 1993). As a result, the lives of those at Jyllands-Posten and the 12 cartoonists were threatened (Ammitzbll Vidino 2007). Meanwhile, Tony Blair and George W. Bush condemned the cartoons as offensive, and many viewed them as signs of racial vilification, thus sympathising with the protesters (Modood et al. 2006). Lipman (2006) draws attention to the hypocrisy of Muslims protesting insults made by a free press when they regularly refer to the West as the great Satan in their media, as well as publishing anti-Semitic caricatures (p. 5). Lipman also notes that the protests ensured the cartoons had a far wider viewership than they otherwise would have. As a result of the protests, publishers in numerous other countries reprinted the cartoons to assert their right to freedom of the press, while radical Islamists continued to protest, carrying signs that said Free speech go to hell and Slay those who insult Islam (Modood et al. 2007). Responding to recent freedom of speech issues such as the Danish cartoon controversy, Babbin (2008) asserts that Muslimsindividually and in pressure groupsare using British libel laws and Canadian human rights laws to limit what is said about Islam, terrorists and the people in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere who are funding groups such as al Qaeda ( 2). Edwards (2006) furthers this argument with reference to some alarming statements made by Islamic leaders with regard to the curtailment of free speech, advocating for legally-binding United Nations resolutions [designed] to prevent defamation of religions and prophets and to render all acts whatsoever defaming Islam as offensive acts and subject to punishment (Edwards 2006, p. 34). In other words, Muslim leaders are attempting to institute international anti-blasphemy laws. Additionally, the President of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils, Dr. Ameer Ali, has stated that no one [has] the right to offend anyone in the media, whic h Edwards (2006) emphasises could easily lend support to the prohibition of practically anything, so long as somebody, somewhere, claims to be offended (p. 35). Freedom of the press in the case of the Danish cartoons also suffered as a result of complex political situations. Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S. President George Bush were hesitant to criticise the violent response of the Muslims to the Danish cartoons, given the situations in Afghanistan and Iraq (Cartoon wars 2006). Also, as Binderup (2007) points out, multiculturalist censorship pays lip service to respecting minority or disadvantaged groups without actually tackling the root causes of disadvantage, such as low socioeconomic status, to which much of the rioting in Third World countries over the Danish cartoons can actually be attributed. As such, condemning the cartoons represents an easy way for political leaders to win favour with powerful religious groups without having to actually change political policies or expend resources to remedy socioeconomic disparities. Among the Danish media, the cartoon controversy has caused the debates over Muslim integration and free speech to grow more nuanced and sophisticated; news stories regarding Muslim issues are frequent, and moderate Muslims have moved to the forefront of the religious side of the debate in Denmark (Ammitzbll Vidino, 2007). In contrast, it has closed dialogue in Britain to some extent, with the press refraining from publishing the cartoons and keeping potentially inflammatory discourse to a minimum wherever possible. The Canadian press did likewise, with a poll of journalists in Canada finding that 70% of respondents believed that the cartoons should have been shown by more media, and 78% attributed the failure of most Canadian media executives to allow the cartoons to be shown to fear (Rego 2006). Rose (2006) continues to defend his publication of the original cartoons by pointing to the totalitarian climate that predominated during the Cold War, indicating that if freedom of expression is not sufficiently defended, such things could happen again. Vancouver Sun reporter Kim Bolan warned in 2006 that as a result of the Danish cartoon protests, the majority of newspapers would probably adopt some degree of self-censorship in the years to come (Rego 2006). This prediction is supported by a report in The Guardian that detailed plans to establish a European press charter that would demand prudence, a term largely open to interpretation, from the media when reporting stories regarding Islam or any other religious group (Rennie 2006). The Church of Scientology The Church of Scientology, founded by former science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard, is based on a therapeutic system that evolved from the authors best-selling 1950s book Dianetics. The faith involves eliminating engrams, impediments that theoretically diminish physical vitality and health, and cause psychosomatic illnesses (Passas Castillo 1992, p. 104). Scientology is premised on the belief that approximately 75 million years previously, evil galactic overlord Zenu froze excess people and sent them to earth as a remedy for overpopulation. However, once thawed, these surplus individuals were blown up whilst chained to volcanoes, and as a result, their spirits haunt mankind to this day (McCullagh 2002). Scientology, which claims the ability to treat illnesses caused by alien souls infesting the bodies of human beings, has won religious status in some countries but not others. What is notable about Scientology, in addition to its rapid growth, is its use of the legal system in the ruthless suppression of its critics (Fair game 2008). Scientology offers its converts the opportunity to advance through various initiation levels, and achieving higher levels requires the payment of large fees for auditing, which is a central component of the religion (Passas Castillo 1992, p. 106). Scientology gains recruits through strategies such as offering free personality testing, as well as maintaining an enormous public relations company and engaging in large-scale advertising campaigns. As a result, the Church of Scientology has become quite affluent, as thus has the resources to engage in legal battles whenever it so chooses. When it comes to criticism, the Church of Scientology believes that the best defence is an offense. Scientologists espouse a Fair Game policy which encourages members of the organization to trick, sue, lie to or destroy any enemy or suppressive person (Passas Castillo 1992, p. 108). Critics such as former Scientologist Arnaldo Lerma have been successfully prosecuted under American copyright laws for posting portions of Scientology scripture online, a case which has had significant implications for freedom of expression on the Internet (Scientologists win copyright case 1996). In the early 1990s, Scientologists launched 35 lawsuits against the Cult Awareness Network (CAN), 20 of them within a single 48-hour period, claiming that the organization, which publishes information to raise public awareness regarding destructive cults, violates the principles of freedom of religion (Scientologists sue critics 1993). CANs mandate, formed in response to the Jonestown Massacre, is to publish material in the public interest that will help people make informed choices regarding religion. The Church of Scientology also filed a defamation lawsuit against Time Magazine for printing an expose of various financial scams conducted by the Church. The lawsuit was dismissed by the New York Court of Appeals, which noted the extensive research undertaken and credible sources used by reporter Richard Behar in proving his claims (Scientology defamation lawsuit 2001). Time Magazine is not the only news publication to be attacked by the Church of Scientology, however. The National Post was sued by Scientologists for reporting on the Churchs lawsuit against a critic and former member (McCullagh 2002). The Electronic Frontier Foundation (2003) lists a number of attacks on free speech by Scientologists, including the court conviction of online Scientology critic H. Keith Henson in California based on a charge of threatening free exercise of religion in 2001. Such cases illustrate the fact that freedom of religion has, in many legal proceedings, become more important than freedom of expression. What is particularly disturbing about such victories for the Scientologists is that none of those prosecuted are actually stopping them from freely practicing their religion. All lawsuits waged by the Church are in response to criticism rather than suppression of the ability to freely engage in religious speech or behaviours. According to McCullagh (2002), the Church of Scientology has also been active in censoring Internet sources, even managing to force Google to remove references to websites that critique the religion, such as Xenu.net and clambake.org. Because these sites originate from the Netherlands, U.S. copyright laws cannot be used to have the sites themselves removed, so Scientologists instead attack U.S.-based search engines such as Google that reference them. Using an intellectual property defence (the controversial Digital Millennium Copyright Act), Scientologists have also been able to force various websites to remove URLs linking to sites which contain material such as an internal report regarding a Scientologist who died mysteriously while allegedly held against her will. More recently, Scientologists were able to block publication of Andrew Mortons unauthorised biography of Scientologist Tom Cruise in Britain, threatening such aggressive legal action that publisher St Martins Press requested that online booksellers refrain from offering the book to foreign customers. However, the British authors book is still available in the United States (Fair game 2008). Scientologys newest critics, a group of online activists going by the name Anonymous, have proven an elusive target for the Churchs litigious attacks. In addition to launching computer-crashing cyber attacks, the group, which was formed in response to the Church of Scientologys attempts to censor a video of Tom Cruise rambling incoherently about the faith, engages in ridicule of the Scientology (Fair game 2008). The case of Scientology underscores the fact that the legal systems of a number of countries are being used to launch attacks on freedom of speech in order to shut down public debate that might undermine religious authority. Such legal attacks are used to prevent criticism and in some cases even exposure of harmful conduct. As in the case of libel laws, the use of copyright infringement laws by the Church of Scientology as its weapon of choice makes it nearly impossible for critics, most of whom do not have much in the way of financial resources, to defend themselves, thus effectively silencing all opposition. Conflicts with Other Religions Muslims and Scientologists are not the only religious groups to take issue with freedom of expression. According to Freund (2005), there have been two notable events in the UK involving religions other than Islam and Scientology in recent years, and these events have caused Tony Blair to add a new incitement of religious hatred offense under the proposed Serious Organised Crime and Police Bill. One event was the reaction to a play called Bezhti, by Gurpreet Kaur Bhatti, which depicts rape and murder in a temple. Sikh response was so vehement that the playwright was forced into hiding. The other was the BBCs broadcast of Jerry Springer: The Opera, which casts Jesus in a somewhat homoerotic light. After the screening a number of Christians burned their TV licenses. In response to the new law proposed by Blair, Salman Rushdie wrote to The Guardian to express his fears about the continuing collapse of liberal, democratic, secular and humanist principles in the face of the increasingly strident demands of organised religions, which he emphasises is perhaps the most worrying aspect of life in contemporary Britain (Freund 2005, p. 9). Zimmerman (2000) describes another clash between freedom of expression and religion as manifested in the Harry Potter hysteria. Evangelical Christians have accused J.K. Rowling of promoting the occult and witchcraft, and some even believe that the popular series is the work of Satan. Evangelicals have demanded that the Harry Potter books be taken out of school classrooms and libraries, which would open the door to other acts of censorship. While such events are not directly related to journalistic news reporting, they contribute to the wariness of all publishers in dealing with anything potentially offensive to religious groups. Thus, all censorship increases the power of religious groups to shut down public discourse regarding values and other aspects of democratic society. Conclusion Levy (1993) notes that [t]he prosecution of blasphemy probably did far greater harm to society than indulging the offensiveness of the blasphemers in that it taught society not to learn self-restraint when confronted by differences, however insultingly expressed, as well as not to respect the right of [a] minority to express opinions on religion (pp. 436-437). Also, because what is acceptable to one religion is insulting or abusive to another, one persons free speech [is] anothers blasphemy (Levy 1993, p. 557), which makes it impossible to place legal restrictions on freedom of speech without favouring one religion over another. As the rights to free expression and religious freedom clash, it appears that religious interests now have the upper hand. This was illustrated by the words of European Commissioner Franco Frattini in 2006 regarding a potentially restrictive media charter that would demand prudence in reporting on religious issues: the press will give the Muslim world the message: we are aware of the consequences of exercising the right of free expression, we can and we are ready to self-regulate that right (Rennie 2006, 5). It is also evident in a review of the literature, which turns up a number of grovelling apologies and retractions made by papers in the UK, the U.S. and Canada for publishing material that offends religious sensibilities. Such apologies include the Washington Post issuing a correction in response to negative statements made by staff writer Michael Weiskopf regarding the followers of Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, and National Public Radio apologizing for comments made by poet Andre Codrescu which took a dim view of Millenarian rapture beliefs, after the comments generated angry responses (Hoover 1998). However, it should be noted that religious groups are not above manipulating the press for their own ends. Many have hired PR men or entire firms, or have established volunteer publicity committees designed to pressure publishers into allowing only commentary and stories favourable to their organisations to be published (Hoover 1998). It is obvious that religious interests have to some degree restricted the way news is reported, in that the press is much more afraid of offending such groups than it was throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the 2002 Reporters without Borders press freedom rankings, the UK held the number 21 spot. However, by 2004, the UK tied for 28th place alongside Hungary and El Salvador, while Denmark took the number one spot. That same year, the UK was beat out by South Africa (26th), Jamaica (24th), the United States (22nd) and Canada (18th). In 2007, the UK had regained some ground, landing the 24th spot. While there are many possible contributing factors to Britains slide in the press freedom rankings, it is likely that the fear of offending religious sensibilities is among them. Dalier and Schneider (2007) emphasise that [t]he value of freedom of expression is best appreciated when compared to its alternatives (p. 130). Lipman (2006) supports this argument but adds a cautionary postscript that is worth considering: The right to publish offensive materials must be protectedbut the decision to do so is another matter entirely. The question isnt merely whether a newspaper may print particular material but whether such material is a moral choice in todays world (p. 6). Sanders (2002) argues along the same lines, stressing that [f]reedom and truth are of enormous value but there will be times when a prudent silence will be the course of action taken by the truly virtuous person (p. 72). According to Levy (1993) [a]n argument can be made for the punishment of the incitement of hatred against persons who belong to religious, racial, or other minority groups; however, this argument loses all efficacy when criticism is aimed at a vast majority, and [i]n the case of blasphemers, invariably some vulnerable minority or individual has gallingly assaulted the sensibilities of the powerful majority (p. 437). This is certainly the case with most religious outrage today. Muslims and Christians far outnumber the atheists and agnostics who tend to be their fiercest critics. The fact that the Muhammad cartoons inspired a more violent and powerful reaction than the photos that came out of Abu Ghraib broadcasts a strong message about the power of religion in some circles (Lipman 2006, p. 6). Scientologists, by contrast, can legitimately claim to be a minority in numbers; however, the organisation is also extremely powerful due to its deep pockets and litigious nature, and its critics are outmatched when it comes to resources. Given that the press plays such a critical role in maintaining elements of democracy such as freedom of speech and in particular, the right to criticise those in power, the recent backslide into attempts to suppress anything perceived subjectively as blasphemy or criticism, as well as violent threats made toward those who represent dissenting voices, is disturbing. Its widely recognised that criticism of politics, philosophies, ideologies, and other ideas is part of the process of reaching better conclusions (Lipman 2006, p. 5). As such, when freedom of expression is compromised, democratic processes are threatened. However, serving religious interests is also advantageous for those in power; thus, it is the free media rather than political leaders that acts as a curb against tyranny. According to Hoover, a free and responsible press is the most important check on the excesses of government (p. 143). Ultimately, unless there is a shift back in favour of freedom of speech, there will be a slow but steady erosion of the very foundation of democracy. Works Cited Albanese, A., Pinkowski, J. 2007, ALA to libraries: Keep Alms for Jihad, pulped in the UK [HTML Version], Library Journal, August 23, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6471402.html. Ammitzbll, P., Vidino, L. 2007, After the Danish cartoon controversy [HTML Version], Middle East Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. Babbin, J. 2008, Muslims attacking 1st Amendment in foreign courts[HTML Version], Human Events, Vol. 64, No. 1, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. BBCs dilemma over cartoons, 2006, BBC News [Online], February 3, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ukfs/hi/newsid_4670000/newsid_4678100/4678186.stm. Binderup, L. 2007, Global freedom of speech, TRAMES: A Journal of the Humanities Social Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 4, 403-418. British Council. 2004, Freedom of Expression and the Media. Cartoon wars, 2006, Economist, February 11, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. Council of Europe. 1950, The European Convention on Human Rights, retrieved April 1, 2008, from Hellenic Resources Network: https://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html. Dalier, ., Schneider, T. E. 2007, The freedom of expression in global perspective, Society, Vol. 44, No. 6, 126-130. Edwards, S. 2006, On the right to give offense, Policy, Vol. 22, No. 3, 32-35. Electronic Frontier Foundation. 2003, EFF legal cases Church of Scientology archive, retrieved 1 April 2008, from www.eff.org: https://w2.eff.org/legal/cases/Scientology_cases/ Fair game [HTML Version], 2008, Economist, Vol. 386, Issue 8565, February 2, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. Freund, C. P. 2005, Inciting censorship. Reason, Vol. 37, No. 9, p. 9. Ghosh, A. 2006, The perils of depicting the prophet [HTML Version], Time, Vol. 167, No. 7, February 13, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. Hoover, S. M. 1998, Religion in the News: Faith and Journalism in American Public Discourse, SAGE Publications Ltd., London. Levy, L. W. 1993, Blasphemy: Verbal Offense Against the Sacred, from Moses to Salman Rushdie, Alfred A.Knopf., New York. Lipman, M. 2006, Cartoons, commentary, and restraint, Humanist, Vol 66, No. 2, 5-6. M.E. Sharpe Inc. 2006, On the rights of citizens, Chinese Law and Government, Vol. 39, No. 1, 5-49. McCullagh, D. 2002, Google yanks anti-church sites [HTML Version], Wired, March 21, retrieved 1 Aprile2008 from https://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2002/03/51233. Modood, T., Hansen, R., Bleich, E., OLeary, B., Carens, J. H. 2006, The Danish cartoon affair: Free speech, racism, Islamism, and integration, International Migration, Vol. 44, No. 5, 3-62. Muhammad cartoons: a timeline, 2006, CBC News [Online], October 26, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.cbc.ca/news/background/islam/muhammad_cartoons_timeline.html. Passas, N., Castillo, M. E., 1992, Scientology and its clear business, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, Vol. 10, 103-116. Rego, M. 2006, Fear of publishing, Ryerson Review of Journalism [Online], March 5, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.rrj.ca/online/604/. Rennie, D. 2006, EU commissioner urges European press code on religion [Online], The Guardian, February 9, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/02/09/ncart109.xml. Rose, F. 2006, Why I published the cartoons [Online], The National Post, February 23, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/issuesideas/story.html?id=ad0c1a04-ba1c-4409-b4cf-e23903b50850p=1. Sanders, K. 2002, Ethics and Journalism, SAGE Publications Ltd., London. Scientologists sue critics, 1996, Christianity Today, Vol 37, No. 2, 53-54. Scientologists win copyright case [HTML Version], 1996, Christian Century, Vol. 113, No. 9, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database. Smalls, F. R. 2006, Not so funny [HTML Version], Scholastic News, Vol. 74, No. 18, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Primary Search database. Spencer, R. 2008, Geert Wilders Fitna: Insightful and inciteful [Online], HumanEvents.com, March 31, retrieved 1 April 2008 fromhttps://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=25777. Sturcke, J. 2006, Libel laws explained [Online], The Guardian, August 31, retrieved 1 April 2008 from https://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2006/aug/31/news.politicsandthemedia. The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. 2001, Scientology defamation lawsuit against Time Magazine dismissed, The News Media the Law, Vol.. 25, No. 2, 21. UK Parliament. 1998, Human Rights Act 1998, retrieved April 1, 2008, from Office of Public Sector Information: https://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en_1. Winston, B. 2005, Messages: Free Expression Media The West from Gutenberg to Google, Routledge, Lond. Worldwide Press Freedom Indices. 2002-2007, retrieved April 1, 2008, from Reporters Without Borders: https://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=11715. Zimmerman, J. 2000, Harry Potter and his censors [HTML version], Education Week, Vol. 19, No. 43, retrieved 1 April 2008 from the Academic Search Premier database.

Islam in Modern Day Film - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 780 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/10/10 Category Religion Essay Tags: Islam Essay Did you like this example? For a long time, Hollywood has always showed extreme versions of stereotypes of other cultures and religions in films. More than often these stereotypes are represented in a negative way or are casted as the antagonist. Six years after the 9/11 attacks, the movie â€Å"The Kingdom† premiered. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Islam in Modern Day Film" essay for you Create order This was the first movie to be produced after 9/11 where terrorist attacks were showed. This movie is roughly based on the 2003 bombings that happened on an American oil company housing compound in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. While the movie did a good job on shedding light on what is going on in the middle east, it depicted a very negative view on the Islamic religion. The Kingdom furthermore added to the stereotype that post 9/11 America already had on the religion, that all Muslims are violent terrorists. The movie portrayed Muslims as being terrorists by showing scenes where they are performing violent acts, training their youth to be future terrorists, and using Muslims in scenes where they commit terrorist actions. After 9/11, many people had the idea that being violent was part of the Islamic faith. Most of people’s knowledge of Muslims and Islam were shaped by the portrayal negative stereotypes showed in films and what was covered by mass media. Many Muslims living in America were affected by this. Movies that were based in the Middle East and included Muslim characters did not help eliminate the negativity surrounding that stereotype. Almost every scene in ‘The Kingdom’, Muslims are seen committing some sort of violent act whether it be at an American or at another Muslim. In many of these scenes in the film, the terrorists are heard reciting Islamic passages before executing such heinous acts. Toward the end of the first ten minutes of the movie, a suicide bomber dressed as Saudi police officer runs into a crowd of people and recites such before detonating himself, killing hundreds of people in the process. The following scene shows Muslims filming what happened as they are reciting more passages. This unfortunately further helps distort people’s emotions toward Muslims and adds to the stigma that violence is an inseparable part of the Islamic faith. Fast forward a couple of years after 9/11, mainstream media began reporting on how terrorists are involving naà ¯ve and extremely impressionable children in extremist movements. That caused more fear to spread into American minds that all young Muslims were to join terrorist organizations. This adds another example on Muslims being portrayed as terrorists in ‘The Kingdom’ in that it shows a great deal of Muslim youth being trained as terrorists or involved in terroristic acts. In one scene you can see a Muslim teen being taught to build a bomber vest and load explosives into a car. These scenes cause more negativity towards the stereotypTe as it paints a picture in people’s minds that they brainwash their vulnerable and susceptible youth to be future terrorist extremists. Majority of the Muslims in ‘The Kingdom’ are showed engaging in terroristic actions. These scenes start at the seven-minute mark in the movie, with most of these actions being towards Americans. The first scene shows a pair of Muslims hijacking a Saudi police car and then shooting at people on an American housing compound. Following this attack as previously stated in the second paragraph, another Muslim dressed as a Saudi officer runs into a fleeing crowd of people and detonates his suicide jacket. In between both scenes, the camera shows a group of Muslims filming from a roof top who are obviously behind these attacks. This adds more hostility towards the stereotype. It can be concluded from one’s observations that the intentions from the director, Peter Berg was to portray all Muslims as terrorists in the film, ‘The Kingdom’. This further promotes negative opinions in people’s minds towards Muslims. These damaging attitudes about the Islamic faith only help to contribute to an already Islamophobic America. As a result, the lives of many Muslims are affected by this. While it is ok to fear actual terrorists, it is critical to know that not all Muslims are violent terrorists. Contrary to popular belief, the Islamic faith is very harmonic and promotes peace to everyone. Just like with religion or organization, there is always a small section people who take things out of context and to the extreme. A lot of people in todays world have in their minds that if they do not understand something, they should fear it. These types of thoughts only create more hatred in the world whereas if people took the time to learn and understand other individuals different from them, then society as a whole would be a much better place.

Battle of Kwajalein in World War II

The Battle of Kwajalein occurred January 31 to February 3, 1944 in the Pacific Theater of World War II (1939-1945). Moving forward from victories in the Solomons and Gilbert Islands in 1943, Allied forces sought to penetrate the next ring of Japanese defenses in the central Pacific. Attacking into the Marshall Islands, the Allies occupied Majuro and then commenced operations against Kwajalein. Striking at both ends of the atoll, they succeeded in eliminating the Japanese opposition after brief but fierce battles. The triumph opened the way for the subsequent capture of Eniwetok and a campaign against the Marianas.   Background In the wake of the American victories at Tarawa and Makin in November 1943, Allied forces continued their island-hopping campaign by moving against Japanese positions in Marshall Islands. Part of the Eastern Mandates, the Marshalls were originally a German possession and were awarded to Japan after World War I. Considered part of the outer ring of Japanese territory, planners in Tokyo decided after the loss of the Solomons and New Guinea that the islands were expendable. With this in mind, what troops were available were shifted to the area to make the islands capture as costly as possible. Japanese Preparations Led by Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyama, Japanese forces in the Marshalls consisted of the 6th Base Force which initially numbered approximately 8,100 men and 110 aircraft. While a sizable force, Akiyamas strength was diluted by the need to spread his command over the entirety of the Marshalls. In addition, many of Akiyamas troops were labor/construction details or naval forces with little ground combat training. As a result, Akiyama could only muster around 4,000 effectives. Believing the assault would strike one of the outlying islands first, he positioned the bulk of his men on Jaluit, Mili, Maloelap, and Wotje. In November 1943, American airstrikes began whittling down Akiyamas air power, destroying 71 aircraft. These were partially replaced over the next several weeks by reinforcements flown in from Truk. On the Allied side, Admiral Chester Nimitz originally planned a series of assaults on the outer islands of the Marshalls, but upon learning of Japanese troop dispositions through ULTRA radio intercepts altered his approach. Rather than strike where Akiyamas defenses were strongest, Nimitz directed his forces to move against Kwajalein Atoll in the central Marshalls. Armies Commanders Allies Rear Admiral Richmond K. TurnerMajor General Holland M. Smithapprox. 42,000 men (2 divisions) Japanese Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyamaapprox. 8,100 men Allied Plans Designated Operation Flintlock, the Allied plan called for Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turners 5th Amphibious Force to deliver Major General Holland M. Smiths V Amphibious Corps to the atoll where Major General Harry Schmidts 4th Marine Division would assault the linked islands of Roi-Namur while Major General Charles Corletts 7th Infantry Division attacked Kwajalein Island. To prepare for the operation, Allied aircraft repeatedly struck Japanese airbases in the Marshalls through December. This saw B-24 Liberators stage through Baker Island to bomb a variety of strategic targets including the airfield on Mili. Subsequent strikes saw A-24 Banshees and B-25 Mitchells mount several raids across the Marshalls. Moving into position, US carriers began a concerted air offensive against Kwajalein on January 29, 1944. Two days later, US troops captured the small island of Majuro, 220 miles to the southeast, without a fight. This operation was conducted by the V Amphibious Corps Marine Reconnaissance Company and 2nd Battalion, 106th Infantry.    Coming Ashore That same day, members of the 7th Infantry Division landed on small islands, dubbed Carlos, Carter, Cecil, and Carlson, near Kwajalein to establish artillery positions for the assault on the island. The next day, the artillery, with additional fire from US warships, including USS Tennessee (BB-43), opened fire on Kwajalein Island. Pummeling the island, the bombardment allowed the 7th Infantry to land and easily overcome the Japanese resistance. The attack was also aided by the weak nature of the Japanese defenses which could not be built in depth due to the islands narrowness.   Fighting continued for four day with the Japanese mounting nightly counterattacks. On February 3, Kwajalein Island was declared secure. Roi-Namur At the north end of the atoll, elements of the 4th Marines followed a similar strategy and established fire bases on islands dubbed Ivan, Jacob, Albert, Allen, and Abraham. Attacking Roi-Namur on February 1, they succeeded in securing the airfield on Roi that day and eliminated Japanese resistance on Namur the next day. The largest single loss of life in the battle occurred when a Marine threw a satchel charge into a bunker containing torpedo warheads. The resulting blast killed 20 Marines and wounded several others. Aftermath The victory at Kwajalein broke a hole through the Japanese outer defenses and was a key step in the Allies island-hopping campaign. Allied losses in the battle numbered 372 killed and 1,592 wounded. Japanese casualties are estimated at 7,870 killed/wounded and 105 captured. In assessing the outcome at Kwajalein, Allied planners were pleased to find that the tactical changes made after the bloody assault on Tarawa had bore fruit and plans were made to attack Eniwetok Atoll on February 17. For the Japanese, the battle demonstrated that beachline defenses were too vulnerable to attack and that defense in-depth was necessary if they hoped to stop Allied assaults.

Essay On Environmental Hazards - 958 Words

Week 2 Discussion Judith Amang South University Significant Episodes in which an Environmental Hazard Caused Adverse Health Outcomes in Humans. Organochlorines such as DDT, PCBs, and polycyclic are the environmental hazard that caused the most adverse health outcomes. Some studies have shown that the presence of petroleum byproducts in animal will react as estrogen, therefore, these have stimulated the formation of a tumor in rats. As a result, pollutants are causing air pollution from industrial manufacturing, energy production, is causing a lot of damage in people’s health when it is inhaled. Therefore, a scientist has shown that many of these poisons deposited in the fats for a long period of time. Hence, this is very†¦show more content†¦Women are susceptible to the exposure of chemicals (Kumar 2004).due to the spread of chemicals in manufacturing, females exposed to these chemicals are likely to jeopardize their fertility. Therefore, many years ago, evidence has shown the destructive effects of women exposed to chemicals in their reproductive system and the pregnancy outcomes has revealed (Kumar, 2004). So, women exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon experienced unprompted abortion two times more than non-exposed ones. What are the steps that were taken to prevent the adverse health outcomes from occurring? Should there be any other step that was necessary to prevent the adverse health outcome? Explain. In this study, all solvent present in the work area was measured, and this experiment was executed by a hygienist team of the company. So, the organic solvent existing in the work area was performed in the breathing zone, â€Å"Air samples were collected on charcoal tubes with constant ï ¬â€šow (100 ml/min) pumps (SKC 226-01) for laboratory units and packing units† (Axelsson G, 1984). In addition, the hygienist was monitoring air constantly during working hours. Suggest the ways to prevent future occurrences of such episodes. Monitoring air constantly, and avoiding pregnant women to work in that such environment, otherwise employer must provide adequate PPE for employee protection. Is there an association betweenShow MoreRelatedFour Categories of Human Environmental Hazards Essay865 Words   |  4 PagesCategories of Human Environmental Hazards Everest Online University EVS1001-26 Environmental Science Professor Deborah Builder September 6th, 2012 The Four Categories of Human Environmental Hazards There are many exposures to hazards in our environment today that brings along the risk of an injury, different types of diseases, and even in some cases death. These hazards are called human environmental hazards. There are four categories to human environmental hazards which we will discoverRead MoreEnvironmental Science Essay1154 Words   |  5 PagesEnvironmental Fundamentals Laura Jackson Env/100 April 8, 2013 JOHN ENSWORTH Environmental Fundamentals Introduction Environmental science is defined as the study of the environment and the interconnecting systems it contains, furthermore, the way people interact with their natural surroundings and use natural resources (wise geek, 2013). Scientist in this field is highly interdisciplinary and extremely diverse, for example, a scientist might study volcanoes or climate change. This essayRead MoreOil And Gas Production And The Effect On The Environment1713 Words   |  7 Pages1989 as important commercial fishing and hunting grounds were contaminated for an extended period†. Traveler also was influenced as well. Oil and gas removal and processes have also most likely impacts on crops and the environment follow-on from environmental condition, disturbance because of formation efforts, resulted in indirect effects because of environment modification and pollution caused by spilled and exudation or dense waste removal. In the time of exploration, the environment such as housesRead MoreThe Impa ct Of Globalization On The Environment1555 Words   |  7 Pagesindustrial revolution has rapidly increased the negative changes in the Earth s environment.1 In the modern era, the processes and effects of the forces of globalisation can be seen to be exacerbating the problem of environmental decline exponentially. For the purposes of this essay, globalisation can be defined as â€Å"the increased interconnectedness and interdependance of peoples and countries†, involving â€Å"...the opening of borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people andRead MoreGenetically Modified Food : Modified Foods1165 Words   |  5 PagesPeople are concern the topic about that whether genetically modified foods is safety. It is evidently reasonable for some to believe that it hazard to human health and the environment, which should be strictly banned. However, in spite of those who are also think that it is safe and bring us a lot of benefits, which should be activel y developed. In this essay, my personal view is that I do not agree with genetically modified foods. Not only because of the destruction it caused to the ecological environmentRead MoreThe Disparities Between African American Women And European Americans1387 Words   |  6 Pagesward, 2004). The health disparities in African Americans and other racial groups are alarming. For this essay I choose to focus on the empirical facts on the disparities between African American women and European American women who are diagnosed with breast cancer and the disparity in mortality rates. Therefore many of the studies I found linked the disparity to race, poverty and environmental factors. American cancer society estimates, that in 2017 there will be 252,710 new breast cancer diagnosisRead MoreHealth Safety800 Words   |  4 Pages Answer: Yes the worker is over-exposed during the duration of their 8 hour shift. What is the primary concept of hazard recognition and the hierarchy of hazard control? Answer: The primary goal of hazard recognition is â€Å"to reduce incidents, accidents, injuries and property damage.† The primary concept of the hierarchy of hazard control is â€Å"source-path-human intervention. Of which elimination is an option if a task it too dangerous.† The specific hierarchyRead MoreVulnerability Through A Political Ecology Approach1834 Words   |  8 Pagesdifferent ways. This essay aims to unpack vulnerability and what it is comprised of, namely exposure, sensitivity and resilience. This essay will briefly explain three approaches of vulnerability assessment, which are: risk/hazard, ecological resilience and political ecology/economy, and to go in depth into the political ecology/economy approach. The essay also aims to discuss a case study that uses one of these approaches and to explore how the case study uses this approach. The essay will then discussRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Sacrifice Zones By Steve Lerner1582 Words   |  7 Pagesthrough twelve separate stories of communities in the United States that have been unwillingly exposed to high levels of environmental toxicity. In each of these cases, citizens of those communities reacted to and pushed back against being exposed to toxic chemicals, sometimes successfully an d sometimes less so. In every case, the people most heavily exposed to these health hazards were minorities and low-income citizens, which, Lerner argues, is why government officials and corporate decision-makersRead MoreThe Greatest Epa Cleanup Program889 Words   |  4 PagesI read a few of the essays published by Aldo Leopold from 1998 to 2001 in a book of collective essays called For the Health of the Land. The collection is a plea from Leopold for the development of land ethic. He believes that humans have the responsibility to interact with the land in ways that promote its good being. Even though the essays were published over 50 years ago, progress in Leopold’s concept of land health has just begun. The EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) are helping by conducting

Sun Tracking Control Strategy Engineering Essay Free Essays

It is good known that in theory, 41 % more sunshine is available by tracking the PV faculty to follow the day-to-day class of the Sun, comparative to fixed installings. The overall aim of this survey is to develop a control algorithm that improved public presentation and dependability the two-axis solar tracker. To accomplish this end, this survey dressed ore on optimising the LM3S811 based accountant board, thrust hardware and package. We will write a custom essay sample on Sun Tracking Control Strategy Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Keywords: embedded system design, two-axis Sun trailing, control algorithm. A ±ntroductA ±on Solar energy systems and equipment such as PV and twenty-four hours illuming systems, solar aggregators, and solar-powered heat engines work best when their aggregators aim straight at the Sun. Adding a solar tracker to these systems increases their efficiencies at the disbursal of initial and operational costs and system complexness. It has been estimated that the usage of a trailing system, over a fixed system, can increase the power end product by 20 % – 40 % with cost addition 10 % -30 % [ 1-3 ] . Since the Sun ‘s place in the sky alterations with the seasons and the clip of twenty-four hours, tracker is used to aline the aggregation system to maximise energy production. Several factors must be considered when finding the usage of trackers. Some of these include: the solar engineering being used, the sum of direct solar irradiation, feed-in duties in the part where the system is deployed, and the cost to put in and keep the trackers. Concentrated applications like concentrated photovoltaic panels ( CPV ) or concentrated solar power ( CSP ) require a high grade of truth to guarantee the sunshine is directed exactly at the focal point of the reflector or lens. The two basic classs of trackers are individual axis and double axis. Single axis solar trackers can either hold a horizontal or a perpendicular axis. In concentrated solar power applications, individual axis tracker is used with parabolic and additive Fresnel mirror designs. Dual axis solar trackers have both a horizontal and a perpendicular axis leting them to track the Sun ‘s evident gesture virtually anyplace in the universe This paper presents a control scheme for a two axes solar tracker that is executed in an ARM based Stellaris L3S811 microcontroller. Correct sun place is inferred from the GPS. The proposed control scheme consists of a combination between ; an unfastened cringle tracking scheme, and a closed cringle scheme. The overall aim of this survey is to develop a control algorithm that improves public presentation and dependability the two-axis Sun tracker. To accomplish this end, this survey concentrates on optimising the accountant board, thrust hardware and package. Two-axA ±s Sun tracker The Sun ‘s beams can be decomposed into two constituents, one perpendicular to the panel surface, and the other analogue to the surface, where merely the former radiation can be received by the panel. Therefore, the angle between the Sun ‘s beams and the normal of the panel which is called the incident angle should be every bit little as possible. Incidence angle alterations with the diurnal and seasonal fluctuations. Therefore, the fixed-installed solar aggregators can non to the full absorb the solar radiation energy. If at any clip by automatically tracking solar aggregators, panel place can be adjusted harmonizing to the Sun ‘s flight to cut down the incidence angle ; it will be able to absorb more solar radiation energy than the fixed panels in the same irradiation conditions. The panel of dual-axis Sun tracking system rotates around the two reciprocally perpendicular shafts, AZ shaft and lift shaft, shown in Fig 1. It will track the Sun ‘s AZ angle and l ift angle, so that the panel can accomplish incident angle of 0. Two methods are normally used in solar trailing to place and follow the place of the Sun at any blink of an eye of clip between dawn and sundown: the closed cringle control method and the unfastened cringle control method. The closed cringle control method uses several feedback detectors such as LDR, photodiode, light-intensity detectors, mention cells and a signal processing circuit [ 4-6 ] . The signal processing circuit compares the end product signals of the detectors and operates on a feedback cringle with the coveted signal status. The end of the cringle is to bring forth maximal entire mistake signal from detectors by continuously seting the tracker way until the shadow on the detectors is the lower limit. A drawback of the closed cringle control method is that it can non efficaciously track the Sun on a cloudy twenty-four hours without a robust algorithm. Fig. -Structure of the two-axis Sun tracker. The unfastened cringle control method uses the longitude and latitude informations of the solar tracker location to find and track the place of the Sun [ 7, 8 ] . It has the advantages of easy scheduling and high truth. The system is simpler and cheaper than the closed-loop type of Sun tracking systems [ 9 ] . It does non detect the end product of the procedures that it is commanding. However, a fixed get downing way of the tracker at dawn every twenty-four hours is required in this method. Therefore, the get downing way of the tracker must be corrected from clip to clip. Consequently, an open-loop system can non rectify any mistakes so that it could do and may non counterbalance for perturbations in the system. Specifying Elevation and Azimuth Angles The algorithm for Sun trailing uses the solar lift, i? ±e and azimuth, i? ±A angles computed at the solar tracker location. The tracker must be aligned horizontally to find the lift and AZ angles accurately along with the hr and decline angles with regard to the heavenly equator or plane as depicted in Fig.1. Solar lift, i? ±e is the angle between the skyline and the line linking the beginning and the Sun that is, the complement of the zenith angle. Solar AZ, i? ±A is the angular supplanting of the projection of the line to the Sun onto the horizontal plane from the south axis. The solar lift angle, i? ±e, of the orientation system in the perpendicular plane, ?e, can be calculated as follows [ 9 ] sini? ±e=sini? ¤ sini? ¦ +cosi? ¤ cosi? ¦ cosi? · ( 1 ) Where e is the lift angle of the system i? ¦ is the latitude. is the hr angle ( 15 A ; deg ; / hr ) , where ? = 0 at local midday. is the solar decline, where ? is calculated from Cooper ‘s equation, ( 2 ) N is the twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth ( 1 – 365 ) with N = 1 stand foring the 1st of January. Fig. – The relation between lift and zenith angles. The azimuth angle of the system in the horizontal plane, ?A, is calculated as [ 9 ] . ( 3 ) The solar trailing system normally returns to its initial remainder place after sundown, and starts to track the Sun after the Sun rises above the skyline. The dawn and sunset times can be calculated utilizing [ 13 ] for system location. DesA ±gn and application 3.1. Mechanical Design The panels ‘ support construction was designed with two grades of freedom in order to change the disposition and orientation. Besides, the construct of the panel ‘s support every bit good as the system that allows this support to go around around the two axes was developed. The tracker is composed of a fixed base which is straight on the land, holding a mechanism that connects the base to the back uping construction of the panels. This mechanism consists of two parts, which have a grade of freedom ( from each other ) in two axes. For altering the disposition of the construction, extra linear actuator is mounted to the solar tracker control system. Linear actuators are highly precise by design, particularly when compared to pneumatic and hydraulic solutions. Screw based mechanical additive actuators allow to progress or withdraw the motivation rod by highly little increases, which is required for the exact placement of solar tracker. Electric additive actuator consumes highly low electricity and are available in 12 Volts d.c. it can be powered by the solar panel itself supported by a battery. Linear actuators can be remarkably little, particularly when sing the scope of gesture that is required for traveling the Sun tracker. Photograph of the mechanical construction is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. – Mechanical construction of the Sun tracker. 3.2. Hardware Design The hardware design combines the embedded microcontroller with two DC motor drivers, rotational DC motor, DC motor controlled additive actuator, solar rotary motion mechanism, GPS, pyranometer, wind gauge, tilt switches and MEMBS based inclinometer. A general block diagram of the control system is shown in Fig. 4. Global placement system ( GPS ) is connected to the microcontroller via a standard consecutive RS-232 port. GPS sends to the microcontroller sentences, that contains a twine of characters, continuously. These sentences chiefly include longitude, latitude, height, day of the month and clip for location where GPS is placed. Since microcontroller has the existent clip clock circuitry, it is moderately accurate over short periods, but it needs standardization sporadically. As a consequence, the GPS clock signal is used to update the microcontroller ‘s internal clip sporadically and therefore effects of the long term mistakes are eliminated. As portion of the attempt to better solar tracker dependability and better understanding public presentation, a pyranometer is being added to solar tracker. This pyranometer allows the informations acquisition system to mensurate exactly the irradiance witnessed by the PV faculties on that tracker, and therefore better supervise the impact of the tracking algorithm on the energy end product of the system. Solar tracker steps tilt angle with potentiometer that has long-run dependability job. A higher dependability option is a solid-state inclinometer. It has three chief advantages ; inherently higher dependability, higher declaration less than 0.1 A ; deg ; , direct measuring of angle. In this undertaking, micro electromechanical systems based on electronic inclinometer ADXL345 is used [ 11 ] . Digital end product informations is formatted as 16-bit two ‘s complement and is accessible through either a SPI ( 3- or 4-wire ) or I2C digital interface The inclinometer would typically be mounted straight underneath a tracker ‘s plane, from where the disposition can be measured. Fig. – Sun Tracker control system block diagram. The solar tracker is fitted with bound switches to guarantee robust operation. A micro roller switch mounted on the base of the solar tracker prevents multiple revolution completion of the AZ tracking phase. The solar aggregator besides includes two more bound switches on the zenith tracking phase to forestall over travel harm to the additive actuator mechanism. The initial reset balance usage tilt switches. The mechanism include four tilt switches ( E, West, south and north ) To protect tracker constituents from over air current velocity, system besides requires an wind gauge to mensurate wind velocity. Consequently, we need powerful and cost-efficient microcontroller to link all these parts and manage to track the Sun. It must hold two consecutive port, ( UART ) one for communicate computing machine the other 1 for GPS, two PWM signals for motor A and motor B, one I2C port for solid-state inclinometer, hardware counter input for wind gauge, parallel input for pyranometer, at least four digital inputs for tilt switches. In add-on, these characteristics we need package development tools for microcontroller. Sing the computation of the mentioned before, 32-Bit Stellaris microprocessor LM3S811 which is optimized for small-footprint embedded applications, fits best to the Sun tracker system. TI Stellaris LM3S811 microcontroller has a Reduced Instruction Set Coding ( RISC ) ARM nucleus, internal oscillators, timers, UART, USB, SPI, pull-up resistances, PWM, ADC, parallel comparator and watch-dog timers are some of the characteristics [ 10 ] . Software Design The developed Sun tracking algorithm enables high-precision finding of Sun angles and times for dawn, solar midday and sunset year-round. The flow chart of the algorithm is drawn in Fig. 5. The computation of the Sun angles with the Sun tracking algorithm package merely requires the specification of the day of the month, clip and exact longitude, latitude and lift of the location through a GPS system. Fig. – Flow chart of Sun tracking algorithm. The algorithm we developed for the control of the Sun tracker is composed of two chief subdivisions. In the input subdivision, the solar lift and AZ angles every bit good as dawn, sundown, solar midday and present solar times are calculated harmonizing to subdivision 2 and used as shared variables in other parts of the package. When the system starts, Stellaris foremost sets tracker to the place place and so takes GPS information to cipher the Sun set and rise times. The present solar clip is compared with the dawn and sunset times to find whether tracking should get down or halt. At dark clip, it waits following sample clip. Sample clip period may be defined harmonizing to proficient restraints. First restraint is GPS hot start clip that is 1 second for GPS. It can non be shorter than this value. The other restraint is the energy consumed by motor A and B during one tracking measure. We set sample clip to 2 minute during experimental work. The present solar clip between dawn and sun set clip ‘s Stellaris reads pyronometer value to look into if there is adequate solar radiation to bring forth power. Otherwise, Sun tracker stays at place place until solar radiation rise to lower bound of solar radiation. After solar radiation reaches the coveted value, so algorithm reads anemometer value to specify whether the Sun tracker can travel safely. If non, Sun tracker stays at place place at least during one sample clip. Otherwise, it starts tracking the Sun. In the end product subdivision of the algorithm, the package takes azimuth, ?A, and lift, ?e, angles from shared variables and converts them to drive gesture. The deliberate angles ?e, ?A, are so subtracted from the old place values. Harmonizing to the obtained angle difference and their marks, microcontroller sends PWM and way signals to the motor accountants. Motor A and motor B takes solar panel to the new place. Motor A can drive solar panels to turn in the horizontal plane in order to track the alterations in AZ angle ; its positive place is westbound. Similarly, motor B can drive solar panels to turn in the manner of fliping so as to track the alterations of solar lift angle ; its positive way is downward. At the terminal of tracking, the place of mechanisms demands to be defined. The electronic inclinometer ADXL345 sends x, Y, omega axis values to the Stellaris. This digital axis values are converted to angles by the microcontroller. By comparing the mensural angles with deliberate angles, the two motors take different motions to complete come up to the coveted place of the solar panel. Finally, when this twenty-four hours is over, the system backs to the place place to wait for the following twenty-four hours. ResultS and dA ±scussA ±on Sun tracker was tested both in the research lab and out-of-doorss utilizing SM-55 solar panel [ 12 ] . During the out-of-door trial, the Sun tracking system was moved to outside of a edifice so that we could compare the consequences between fixed place and two-axis Sun tracking systems. During a 24-hour test period, the two-axis solar tracker was required to run for about 2 proceedingss every hr to keep proper alliance with the Sun. Fig. – Outdoor trial consequences of sun tracker. During the trial procedure, solar panel charged to the battery, and solar panel current and electromotive force values were measured and stored every minute utilizing a information lumberman. End of the twenty-four hours, the solar panel, charged the battery up to 408.2 Watt-hour energy for about 11 hours. The recorded information on the twenty-four hours 5.5.2012 proved that the two-axis solar tracking PV panel produced more energy than the fixed 1 with about 40.7 % . ConclusA ±on In this survey, a cost effectual two-axis Sun tracker has been developed. The ARM Cortex-M3 nucleus microprocessor successfully calculated the tilt angle of the solar panel in order to look into the accurate Sun lift angle. The placement technique, which has been investigated by the DC motor and additive actuator, reduced the mistake in turn uping the lift AZ angles to 0.1 A ; deg ; . The proposed tracker has increased the energy collected by 40.7 % . How to cite Sun Tracking Control Strategy Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Commanding heights episode 3 free essay sample

Commanding heights: The New Rules is the third film in the series and is about the 21st century economy. PBS sponsored the film under the direction of Michael Sullivan to inform the public about the economic situation. They speak about how the economy adapted to what is today. How the world nationalized third world countries allowing exchange and investment. Episode 3 addresses the current and future problems of a globalized world. Thats the structure of the film. The film clearly, thoroughly, and excitingly explains this through historic facts and stories told by citizens who lived during the changes. This is not an economics lesson but rather a high dramatic event that impacts peoples lives. Commanding Heights shows that it is people who create the ideas, it is people who accept or reject them, it is people who profit or suffer by them. The series travels to the locations where events happened, and in many cases, interviews the people who made them happen, from Bill Clinton to Milton Friedman to workers in various countries. Episode three encompasses that along with globalization and an open free market and period of peace and advancement of technologies and ideological views will happen. A global economy will introduce a path to peace and prosperity for rich and poor nation alike. The New Rules of the Gamin 1992, things looked bad for the U.S. economy: Western Europe was assembling into a powerful economic alliance (the European Union) to compete with America, Japan’s economy was unstoppable, and the U.S. was in the worst recession in decades. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trade agreement between the U.S., Canada and Mexico that lowered, but did not eliminate, many trade barriers between the three countries. In large part, Bush wanted to get NAFTA approved to strengthen the U.S. economy against Japan and Europe. The negotiations for NAFTA began under his term. NAFTA became an issue during the 1992 elections. Bush wanted NAFTA 100%, Perot wanted it cancelled, and Clinton wanted NAFTA, but with important amendments added to force Mexico to raise labor and pollution standards so they would have to compete on more even footing with American workers. Clinton won, and his plan was put into action. The labor unions gave Bill Clinton the support he needed to win. NAFTA led to a huge increase in the amount of trade between the three countries. Likewise, each country had significant GDP growth that was directly attributable to the freer trade. The biggest growth was in Mexico, in wealth and employment. The impact on the U.S. was that 400,000 American jobs were lost to more competitive workers and factories south of the border, American unions sustained major and lasting damage to their political influence and membership, and the gap between rich and poor Americans grew wider. As in previous cases, deregulation and freer trade benefitted a whole economy in aggregate while severely hurting a small percentage of people and massively benefitting some companies that are able to take advantage of the new trade policies. In the global economy, annual trade in tangible goods and services is worth $8 trillion while trade in currencies is worth $288 trillion. U.S. workers in both public and private sectors have trillions of dollars invested in work-related retirement funds. The experts who manage these funds are enormously powerful. A large portion of American workers’ pensions is invested overseas. Thus, most American workers are significantly invested in the global economy. After NAFTA, Clinton pursued other important trade liberalization policies across the world. One of his major accomplishments was strengthening the global free market in the aftermath of Communism’s collapse. In 1994, Mexico faced political and economic crisis, and the country came to the brink of defaulting omits foreign debt. There was real fear that the country, left to its own devices, could fall into chaos, and millions of refugees would head north into the U.S. Clinton had crisis meetings with his advisors over the issue and decided to give Mexico a $50 billion loan. It worked to stabilize the country, Mexico repaid the money ahead of schedule, and the U.S. looked like a benevolent actor to the world. However, many critics considered Clinton’s actions to be a prime example of moral hazard: By bailing out the Mexic an government, the U.S. was in essence bailing out thousands of private investors who had put money into the country without properly weighing the risks. The bailout signaled the private sector that it could make similarly bad future investment choices without fear since the U.S. would again rescue them. Critics feared this would make sovereign debt crises more likely. â€Å"Globalization† is defined as the free flow of goods, services, capital, and labor across national borders. China has a number of â€Å"Free Trade Zones,† which are small geographic areas in which companies can build factories to build and export anything with very few restrictions. The Zones are exempt from China’s otherwise strict business and export laws. Seaports and airports are usually located very close tour within Free Trade Zones. At long last, Japan’s economic bubble burst in the 1990’s and the country slid into a major recession that it never really recovered from. American fears of Japan someday â€Å"taking over† the world economically were quickly and permanently dispelled. In the beginning America was behind Japan and Europe in trading and economic growth, thus NAFTA was created to allow trading between North America. The United States were now able to trade freely with Canada and Mexico, providing great economic growth for all three countries in North America. When trading borders opened up Tijuana became a massive manufacturer of televisions for the United States, Northern Mexico was able to open up many jobs giving opportunities to Southern Mexicans. This created an economic boom in North America leading to a surge that would be able to compete with other Countries, because this would allow us to buy cheaper goods. In the end although it hurt American Jobs because Mexico’s goods were cheaper, Both Bush and Clinton wanted NAFTA to succeed in order to put labor and pollution laws into effect in all the countries involved. It would not work unless there was laws put into effect along with more countries following the guideline this is because it would allow other countries to gain a monopoly against us. At the current point now NAFTA is failing, countries are now producing unions and people are realizing the rights they have and that moving to new Countries they will make more money for doing the same exact things they were doing before, For example Mexicans are moving north to the United states in order to collect more money for the same jobs, Thus taking away jobs for Americans in the United States. The first bailout we gave to Mexico during the Clinton era was truly an act of kindness from the United States, and was also a mistake, it allowed Mexico to realize the spending they were doing was not quite how it should have been, workers left and their economy went with them. All in all, the new global economy depends on the globalization of countries rich and poor alike. These interconnections will allow every countries economy to trade and invest in products they want and need. However, they must be cautions in how it happens because the human monster greed always wants more, As in the example of Mexico’s unions proves. The globalization of free trade brings these troubles and monopolies and they need to be dealt with. Migration of people and jobs counter the balance that effects the globalization of pooper countries negatively. Along with migration comes problems, these migrations can cost the area where these people are flocking to, cutting jobs for the natives for slightly cheaper wages. Globalization can lead to a road of peace but we need a balance in order for the idea of globalization to work and to have everyone happy.